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First Persian Gulf War: 1990-1991 The First Persian Gulf War between 1990 and 1991 was the most militarily efficient campaign in US history where comparatively few lives were lost. This war accomplished many goals, including that it secured the economic advantages for the “Western World”. It encouraged a free flow of natural resources, established the value of air power and superiority, and verified that a free alliance for justice will prevail over armed aggression. In the end, the United State’s goals were accomplished: Kuwait was liberated from Saddam and peace settled into the Middle East (Rayment). The Soviet Union attacked Afghanistan on December 27, 1979. This posed a threat on the United States because of their oil ties in this area. On January 23, 1980 President Jimmy Carter responded with a statement called the Carter Doctrine. In this, Carter stated that, “An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force.” (Richie, 25). Ten years later, United States officials were reminded of the Doctrine as signs of an Iraqi invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein began to appear. With a portion of the world’s oil of eleven percent, this invasion would add another nine percent. Not only was this dangerous but if Iraq continued a southern advance, he would gain the oil of Saudi Arabia. Saddam could possibly control forty-six percent of the world’s oil supply and manipulate the global economy (Richie, 25). On July 17, 1990, photos from a KH-11 spy satellite showed that Iraqi military equipment was being positioned near the Kuwait border .General Colin Powell was not concerned with this advancement because the lineup did not include necessary equipment such as fuel trucks and artillery that would be needed for an invasion. Powell believed that this was just a practice exercise or a bluff because Saddam had been pressing Kuwait to lower the oil production in order to keep the prices high (Richie, 26). Kuwait was a small country that had once been part of the Ottoman Empire like Iraq. Then Kuwait had become a British Protectorate from which it had been granted its independence. Its borders had been set in a subjective manner causing it to be difficult to defend but also that the population wasn’t unified. Kuwait was ruled by an Emir of the al-Sabah family (Rayment). Iraq had considered Kuwait to be basically a part of Iraq so land disputes were also common (Lee). Saddam had been disputing the control of two islands, Bubiyan and Warba, by Kuwait that blocked Iraqi access to the Gulf. Another answer to this threat was a dispute over the Rumaila oil fields that crossed the Iraq-Kuwait border. Iraq claimed that Kuwait had been using “slant drilling” to siphon off Iraqi oil (Allen, 65). These badly defined borders caused constant claims by Iraq that Kuwait was illegally tapping into Iraqi oil supply (Lee). Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Arens, was one of the only people that predicted that the problem was going to lead to the attack of an Arab neighbor. He had come about this idea because of a collection of offensive missiles on the Kuwait and Jordanian border (Allen, 67). Hussein met with the U.S. ambassador April Glaspieto learn if the United States would block a partial invasion of Kuwait to secure the oil field and two islands (Richie, 26). Officials from both Iraq and Kuwait had been meeting in Jiddah and Saudi Arabia to compromise but no agreements had been made. On August 1, 1990 representatives from Iraq stated that Kuwait was not taking the negotiations seriously (Allen, 65). After being reassured by Middle Eastern leaders that Saddam was not going to invade Kuwait, satellite images showed the opposite. On August 1, 1990 a “logistics train” of fuel tanks, artillery, helicopters and fighter jets, appeared at the Kuwait border. Iraqi ambassador, Mohammed Sadiq Al-Mashat met with U.S. officials and stated that the Iraqi troops’ movement had been over exaggerated. John Kelly, the U.S. Assostant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs, contradicted Mashat’s claim, proving that the troops on the Kuwait border did exist. In response to Kelly, Mashat declared that, “We are not going to move against anybody.” (Allen, 67). Later that night, Iraq invaded Kuwait with 120,000 soldiers and 1,000 tanks. Satellite photos clearly showed an advance to Saudi Arabia oil-rich fields Therefore due to the growing concern that Saddam Hussein would continue to advance in securing a large portion of the oil-rich lands, the United States began to build a coalition of more than thirty nations including the United States, France, and Great Britain. Bush initiated the decisive action to defend Saudi Arabia and if necessary, use military forces to evict Iraq from Kuwait (Richie, 27). The UN Security Council enacted several economic sanctions to force Iraq’s retreat. One of the more important was Resolution 678, passed on November 29, 1990 this resolution gave Iraq until January 15, 1991 to leave Kuwait or face a war with the coalition (Richie, 27). After the resolution had been initiated, it generated build-up of troops in the region, referred to as Desert Shield and eventually led to Desert Storm, an extreme attack to free Kuwait (Rayment). The United States deployed its first forces August 7, 1990 (Richie, 27). The objective of the coalition was to force Hussein out of Kuwait and restore Kuwait’s legitimate border. When the resolutions were obeyed, Iraq could be a cooperative part of the “family of nations” and in turn the security and stability of the Gulf would be ensured (Bush). Saddam believed that eventually his Arab neighbors would eventually leave the U.S. led effort causing its collapse. Hussein planned to launch a ground attack that would put a severe dent in the coalition force numbers. This in turn could severely demoralize the troops causing negotiations to end the war (Richie, 28). Saddam moved half of his troops into Kuwait by January. Iraq’s forces were modernized and large, consisting of 750 combat aircrafts, powerful “surface-to-air” missile systems, and 7,500 antiaircraft guns. Hussein had one hundred and fifty Scud missiles with deadly chemicals such as mustard gas, VX, and sarin in 20,000 artillery shells or 4,500 aerial bombs (Richie, 28). But these Iraqi troops were inexperienced with the type of warfare that this war entailed. Although they had lots of experience in fighting a stationary war by wearing down on Iran forces, this experience was useless while fighting a mobile campaign (Desert Storm). Iraqi soldiers were known for their extreme violence. While passing through Kuwait city, soldiers interrogated men and women punishing them for incorrect answers. Iraqi soldiers raped women and mutilated much of Kuwait’s population. The “torture centers” of the Iraqi force in Kuwait used such tools as saws, axes, meat hooks, power drills, pick handles, hand vises, electric cattle prods, pliers, carpenter planes to shave off skin, and electric shock devices. Iraq’s idea for Kuwait was a “planned rape plus ‘free enterprise’ by the troops,” stated a senior U.S. intelligence official (Allen, 70). Iraqi tactics were often compared to Arab secret police procedure. Other than beatings and rapes, Kuwaiti people were required to become Iraqi citizens to obtain medical care, purchase goods and gasoline (Allen 72). The coalition was made of more than thirty nations of all sizes. Those countries that didn’t contribute to the 540,000 soldier force, sent supplies, money, medical personnel and equipment. Twelve countries formed the coalition’s air force made of more than 1,700 combat aircrafts (Richie, 28). Six U.S. Navy aircraft carriers and several other support ships were stationed in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea (Richie, 30). The coalition troops were inexperienced in the mechanized infantry and tank technology needed to fight this war. The British had fought the Falklands War with marines and paratroopers, the Syrians had fought with Lebanon but had not included the 9th Division, the Egyptians last fought a war in 1973 shortly after the U.S. had ended its involvement in Vietnam. The Omani Army was the only gulf state that had been involved in any extensive combat experience (Desert Storm). General Norman Schwarzkopf, U.S. commander of coalition forces, planned to fight a very offensive war. Using information that Schwarzkopf had gathered from the KH-11 satellite pictures, Lacrosse radar imaging, and Magnum and Vortex electronic eavesdropping satellites, he was able to formulate a textbook plan (Allen, 178). The technology that Schwarzkopf possessed made it possible to carefully watch the battlefield and gather information as well as blind the enemy (Allen, 181). The coalition’s plan, referred to as Operation Desert Storm, consisted of four phases. The main idea of this maneuver was to end the war quickly by use of complicated technology (Richie, 30). Originally, the goal of Operation Desert Storm was about protecting Saudi Arabia from attack. By January 1991, as events had proceeded, the plan had turned from a defensive war for Saudi Arabia’s safety, to and offensive war against the Iraqi’s taking over Kuwait (Rayment). First was an air campaign against targets inside Iraq, then an air campaign against Iraqi air forces and Iraqi controlled Kuwait defensive systems. Next would be a bombing of Iraqi ground forces in Kuwait followed by a strong ground-attack (Richie, 30). Two days after the UN’s deadline for Saddam’s troop’s evacuation, the war to evict Iraqi forces began. Almost immediately after this, the central control system of the air defense network became useless. All of the antiaircraft guns, surface-to-air missiles, and Iraqi airplanes patrolling in the skies over Baghdad were blinded (Richie, 30). After these main systems were down, any Iraqi radar turned on could be targeted by U.S. Wild Weasel and Prowler aircraft and attacked with anti-radiation missiles (Allen, 181). The air attack plan fell apart because Iraqi pilots without their systems were not helpful. Even the elite pilots with the highest technology French and Soviet made jets were not skilled in dogfights. These pilots were no competition for the coalition pilots and their American and British fighters. The coalition controlled the skies over Iraq by the end of the first week (Richie, 30). In order to counter these air attacks, Saddam launched Scud missiles at both Israel and Saudi Arabia. This attack was an attempt to provoke Israelis to attack Iraq and in turn split Arab nations from this “anti-Iraq” coalition. In reaction to this, President Bush pledges to protect Israeli cities from the Scud missiles and Israel did not retaliate (Lee). In the beginning of the invasion, many Kuwaiti people attempted to resist. Kuwait didn’t mobilize their troops because they sought another solution than confrontation. Had the Kuwait forces responded, the Iraqi force could have easily defeated the weak troops. Small resistance movements formed inside Kuwait. Citizens put up large banners ordering Iraqi troops to leave for the return of emir. When the more brutal second-string troops came, international lines were cut. Although this posed a problem for Kuwait individuals to communicate, many traveled between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to form a “human intelligence” system beneficial to the coalition’s cause. Another reaction to the harsh Iraqi troop’s presence was an anti-Iraqi guerilla movement. Other than killing several Iraqi soldiers, it also gave the Iraqis the chance to desert their troops and return back to Iraq (Allen 73). The first three phases of the Desert Storm plan were very successful. A combination effort from artillery, rockets, attack jets, and B-52’s destroyed Iraqi infantry and armor around Kuwait. Then battleships, Wisconsin and Missouri, of the U.S. Navy made fire on command bunkers, artillery, and radar sites with 2,700-pound shells. Within one month, Iraqi forces were lacking 200,000 men most from surrenders and desertion (Richie 31). Most of Iraq’s problem had been because of Saddam’s bad judgment. He had thought that the bombing would only last a week, but it lasted 39 days. This caused major problems with his army before the ground-attack had begun. Another problem was that the defense line ended at a point too far east. Saddam had chosen this point because he believed that the coalition couldn’t be supported in the 200 miles of ruthless desert and also because of the vastness even Iraqis had gotten lost. Unfortunately for Saddam, he was unaware of the coalition’s new technology such as Global Positioning Systems and the organization and supplies they possessed (Richie, 32-33). On February 24, the coalition launched their ground war often referred to as the “Left Hook”. While seventeen thousand U.S. marines would attack the eastern Iraqi defense line, tens of thousands of soldiers would attack the weak western end. The attack on the eastern side would be a distraction to make the concentration of soldiers on the west become slim. Preoccupied with the eastern attack, the Iraqi troops would be unprepared for one of the “most powerful armored assaults in history” (Richie, 33). At four in the morning the Marines attacked the most heavily concentrated Iraqi defense in Kuwait. By nightfall, the Marines had breached the line and advanced twenty miles as Iraqis surrendered. With 200,000 coalition soldiers and 65,000 vehicles the western side was bombarded with strength. Whereas the Seventh Corps dominated the line, the smaller Eighteenth Corps traveled farther west. These troops were unopposed because they traveled so far beyond the Iraqi line. After heading north, the troops curved back east to get behind the Iraqi forces. This positioning mimicked a boxer throwing a “left hook” at the Iraqi army, therefore inherited this name. By February 26, the third day after the ground attack had began; the Marines had successfully evicted the Iraqis from Kuwait City (Richie 33) While this was going on the Seventh Corps were fighting the heaviest part of the war. Unlike other Iraqi troops, the Republican Guards maintained and fought hard. But because of the coalition’s supreme technology and combat skills, the Iraqi troops posed little threat and by the next day, the Americans blocked the last routes out of Kuwait and took control (Richie, 35). Allied armored forces stopped the Iraqi retreat at the Euphrates River near Basra, and internal rebellions broke out against Saddam and his regime (Lee). At eight o’ clock on February 28th, President Bush called to a cease fire (Richie, 35). Surviving troops were then allowed to escape back into southern Iraq. Iraq accepted the cease-fire agreement on March 3, 1991 and the fighting ended (Lee). Desert Storm lasted forty-three days and did untold damage to Saddam’s troops. In only the 39 day air war, the coalition destroyed forty percent of Iraq’s prewar combat aircrafts. Even before the ground war began, with only 75 planes in the air campaign, the coalition had eliminated one third of the troops in Kuwait. In only 100 hours, the Iraqi forces were evicted from Kuwait in the ground war (Richie, 37). The 100 hour ground war was planned to last 144 hours but President Bush made a decision to end the ground war after 100 hours because of pressure from Egypt and Saudi Arabia (Marshel). With Iraqi troops staggering numbers, Hussein still believed that he hadn’t lost. The Republican Guard was mostly intact and with this, Saddam could remain in power by destroying internal opposition (Richie, 39). The United States failed in their attempt to kill Saddam Hussein. The CIA had devised a plan for a bombing mission on February 27, 1991. Two F-117F bombers from the al-Taji air base, about fifteen miles North West of Baghdad, targeted a bunker deep underground. Although it was hit three times, little damage was done and Saddam wasn't even at the bunker. President George Bush stated, "It is disappointing that Saddam Hussein remains in power and is still brutal and powerful, but that in no way diminishes the highly successful effort to stop the aggression against Kuwait." In a poll taken by The Gallup Organization in February 1991, thirty-seven percent of Americans said "It will be a victory for the United States if Saddam withdraws from Kuwait but remains in power." At the end of the next month, most were convinced Saddam had lost the war, but that he kept his power and his regime (Marshel). This war created a peacemaking opportunity in the Middle East. President Bush had announced that when the Iraqi forces had left Kuwait, he would put forth increased effort to secure peace in the Middle East. After several trips to the Middle East, Secretary of State James Baker was able to compose an international conference for Arab-Israel peace in October of 1991 in Madrid. Another benefit of the war was the strong ties built between countries of the coalition. Several defense agreements were formed encouraging cooperative exercises, training, and pre-positioning of military equipment. In later years, this made President Bill Clinton to react quickly when Iraq threatened Kuwait in October 1994 (Desert Storm). The results of the Persian Gulf War were very affected by the mistakes of both the coalition and Saddam. Although Saddam had lost the war, he maintained his regime. Saddam underestimated his enemy, and got into the war prematurely. He would never freely give into the United States in front of his advisors, in fear of his pride, and possibly his life. Saddam and his troops were not the only ones to have made faults (Marshel). Had the United States carried out their task, Saddam would not have repressed his own people, violated peace agreements and worked on weapons of mass destruction (Rayment). The United States was able to keep Saddam from succeeding in his attempt to conquer the Middle East eight years ago, but they stopped when they should have pursued the most (Marshel). Without the errors that both sides had made, the present day world would have been affected in a completely different way. Works Cited Allen, Thomas B., et al. War in the Gulf. Atlanta, Georgia: Turner Pub., 1991. Bush, George. “Persian Gulf War.” Annals of American History. 3 Mar. 2004 "Desert Storm 1: 1990-1991." Gulf War. 2003. 3 Mar. 2004 Lee, Roger A. “The Persian Gulf War (1990-1991).” The History Guy. 14 Aug. 2001. 3 Mar. 2004 Marshel, Jim. "Mistakes of the Gulf War." Unpublished essay, 13 Mar. 1998. 3 Mar. 2004 Rayment, W. J. The Gulf War. 2004. 3 Mar. 2004 Richie, Jason. “Persian Gulf War, 1991.” Iraq and the Fall of Saddam Hussein. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Oliver Press, 2003. This essay is only for research purposes. If used, be sure to cite it properly! |
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